Akbar's Religious Policy and Theory of Sulh-I Kul

Jalaluddin Akbar

Akbar's religious policy is distinguished mainly on two aspects-his state policies and his own personal ideas and beliefs. His policies tended to be liberal and his general treatment towards the Hindus healed strife and bitterness and produced an environment of harmony and goodwill where there had been racial and religious antagonism of a most distressing character.

Some recent researchers on Akbar, have tended to focus on the factors contributing to the rise of his policy of religious tolerance based on the principle of Sulh-i kul, or 'absolute peace'. According to Iqtidar Alam Khan, ''Akbar's religious policies are often linked to his transformation of the nobility into a composite ruling group including within its ranks a fairly large number of Shias and Rajputs. There has been far less concentration on the nature of Akbar's personal world outlook and of the ideological influences that went to shape it and his religious policy in the last 25 years of his reign''. Athar Ali has recently re-examined this aspect in his article 'Akbar and Islam', which in turn has given rise to several significant questions bearing on the basic character and motivation of Akbar's 'religious policy'. Perhaps the most relevant questions are:1)To what extent did Akbar's personal world outlook influence his religious policy? 2)What was the response of different sections of his subjects to his religious views and more importantly, to the measures adopted by him?

These questions assume special significance in view of the contemporary testimony of Badauni and Jesuits suggesting that, from 1581 onward, Akbar ceased to be a Muslim. Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi's insistence that Akbar's tolerant attitude towards the non muslims stemmed basically from his hostility to Islam further underlines the significance of his personal beliefs for a proper assessment of Akbar's policy of religious tolerance. However, we would study Akbar's religious policy mainly in 3 phases:

The early phase (1556-1573)

Almost immediately after assuming charge of the government, Akbar demonstrated his broad-mindedness when in 1563 he remitted pilgrim tax which amounted to crores on the Hindus at Mathura and other sacred places. Earlier, he had forbidden the enslavement of the wives and children of rebellious villagers. He also married Rajput princesses without converting them to Islam and even allowed them to continue their own religion within the palace. Badauni says that during Akbar's early youth, he used to perform hom, a form of fire worship in the company of Hindu wives.

In 1564, he abolished jizyah(head or poll tax that early Islamic rulers demanded from their non-Muslim subjects). Abu Fazl makes it clear that this step was taken despite ''much chatter on the part of ignorant'',i.e the Ulama. In some modern works it has been emphasized that in order to emphasize Akbar's liberalism, Abu Fazl has deliberately pushed back the abolition of jizyah to 1564, whereas Badauni places it in 1579. It is also said that during this period Akbar behaved like an orthodox Muslim in his private conduct and he scrupulously observed daily prayers, and even cleaned mosque with his own hands.

During this period Akbar was deeply devoted to Abdullah Sultanpuri and Shaikh Abdun Nabi. According to Iqtidar Alam Khan, during this period, Akbar had a manifestly suppressive attitude towards the Muslim sects condemned by the orthodox as heretical. The Iranian nobles mainly ships were encouraged and used against discontented turns throughout the sixties. But at the same time, their freedom was sought to be restricted. A glaring example of this was exhumation in 1567 of Mir Murtaza Sharifi Shirazi's remains from the vicinity of Amir Khusrau's tomb in Delhi at the suggestion of Shaikh Abdu Nabi.

Akbar came increasingly under the influence of pantheistic Sufi doctrines, roughly from 1571, and this caused a momentum turn in his development of a worldview. By 1573, Akbar had come to regard Shaikh Mu'inuddin Chisti as his spiritual preceptor.

The explanation for Akbar's tolerant attitude towards other religions is mostly seen in his liberal upbringing focusing on the fact that his teachers and parents had no use for sectarian bigotry but it may be pointed out that supposition of some of the textbook writers that Akbar's mother, Hamida Bano Begum, was a Shia has no basis. It cannot, however, be denied that Akbar's tutors including two Irani Shias, bairam khan and mir 'Abdul' Latif Qaznini, and the Sunni turani, Munim Khan were largely above sectarian prejudices. But Persian chroniclers, like Khafi Khan and Shah Nawaz Khan, write about the sectarian partiality of Bairam Khan.

One must also take into account the cultural ethos of Timurids down the Humayun's time. Timur is reported to have respected all religions alike. This climate of religious tolerance appears to behave persisted in the Timurid polity down to the time Akbar came to the throne.

The second phase (1573-1580):

This was a phase of intense discussions and introduction on the part of Akbar which led to religious views, and deeply affected state politics in the 3rd and final phase (1581-1605). His successive victory against the Uzbek nobles and his victories in Malwa, Rajasthan and Gujarat strengthened Akbar's belief that he was the chosen instrument of God for unifying India under his command.

In 1575, Akbar built Ibadat Khana or the Hall of Prayers at Fatehpur Sikri. Built around the cell of a Sufi saint, Shaikh Abdullah Niyazi, who had migrated to Gujarat. It was not far from the imperial palace so that Akbar could come and go as he pleased. The opening of Ibadat khana for religious debates was by no means a novelty. Like Jews, Christians and Hindus, the Muslims too indulged in public arguments, both to satisfy intellectual curiosity and to establish their faith over others. At first, the Ibadat Khana debates were open only to Sufi shaikhs, ulama, learned man and a few of the emperors favourites companions and attendants were admitted. However,  after a mystical experience in 1558, Akbar opened the doors of debate to Hindus, Jains, Christians and Zoroastrians. According to R.P. Tripath''instead of bringing credit, the Ibadat Khana provided growing discredit''. According to him, the debate created more confusion.

However, it would be wrong to say Ibadat Khana debate as meaningless or harmful as according to many historians they had two important consequences:1)they convinced Akbar that all religions had an element of truth and that all of them led to the same supreme reality. This was an important phase in the development of Akbar's own religious ideas and led to the evolution of the concept of Sulh-i kul or peace between all religions. 2)The debates publicly demonstrated the narrowness of views, bigotry and arrogance of the court ulama and led to a breach between them and Akbar.

The Mahzar or the attested statement signed by seven leading ulama, including Shaikh Mubarak, father of Abu Fazl and Shaikh Abdun Nabi issued in 1579, has led to a good deal of controversy. In the first place, the document declared that Akbar was ''the sultan of Islam, the asylum of mankind, the commander of faithful, the shadow of god overworlds''. Secondly, that as a just and wise ruler Akbar not only had the right to claim the allegiance of everyone, but his position was higher than a mujtahid(interpreter of holy laws) in the eyes of God; thirdly, that if any religious question arises in future his opinion and decision would be final for the welfare of mankind.

The real significance of the Mahzar, it seems was that it was the first effective declaration of the principles of Sulh-i Kul. Apart from emphasizing on the sense of justice which was an integral part of Sulh-i kul, Akbar also reminded ulama through the documents that state machinery was meant for the welfare of people.

Earlier in India, grants of land were given to support scholars, indigents, widows, men engaged in spiritual pursuits and respectable men without any employment were called Shasan. In the Muslim states, it was called Madadd-i-Maash. According to Badauni, earlier such grants were held by Muslims but after 1575, grants were made to ''the mean, the rebel and even to Hindus, ''after 1580, the number of non-muslim grants increased and were granted to Hindus, Jains, Parsis. Even the Jesuits received a grant to build churches.

Akbar built two establishments outside Fatehpur Sikri to feed poor Hindus and Muslims. The one for Hindus was called Dharampura, and that for the Muslims Khairpura. Later, when Jogis began to flock, a third one, called Jogipura, was established. Thus, the end of the domination of the orthodox ulama opened the doors of the doors of the state for a more equitable distribution of its patronage of all sections irrespective of their faiths.

Third phase (1581-1605):

After 1581 Akbar's identification with Sulh-i Kul tended to make him part company with the mainstream tendency of orthodox Islam in so far as there was no place in his vision for the prescribed prayers and the unquestioned acceptance of Prophethood. It was much closer to the teachings of the contemporary Nirguna Bhakti sects which criticized both Hinduism and Islam for being formalistic and divisive. There was a strong emphasis on the role of preceptor and the status of a preceptor in Akbar's system began to be perceived as that of an Insan-i Kamil(perfect man) of Islamic mysticism.

The crux of Akbar's religious beliefs was his faith in uncompromising monotheism or Tauhid-i-Ilahi, based largely on the Islamic philosopher, Ibn-i-Arabi. Like many of the Sufis, Akbar believed that communion with God was possible by turning oneself to him through meditation. Akbar was not prepared to identify himself with dogmas and ceremonials of any one religion, though he was prepared to show respect to all religions. Thus he forbade cow slaughter, observed dussehra, etc. His firm belief, as stated by Abu Fazl in the Ain-i- Akbari, ''It is my duty to be in good understanding with all men. If they walk in the way of god's will, interference with them would be itself reprehensible; and if otherwise, they are under the malady of ignorance and deserve my compassion''.

There are many statements regarding Akbar's great concern for women. One of his sayings where he ridicules hindu men for seeking salvation in the other world by inducing their wives to perish in fire and the one in which he criticizes muslims personal law for daughters receiving a smaller share in inheritance and says that in fact, it is better that the weaker should receive a large share, are refereshingly original and compassionate.

Akbar's eclecticism was denounced by orthodox Mullahs as ''bidat''(Apostacy). Thus, Badauni charges Akbar with ''rejecting inspiration, Prophethood, the miracles of the prophet and of the saints, and even the whole law sharia'' so that in course of time ''not a trace of Islam was left in his mind''. The christian missionaries led by father Monserrate makes the same charge.

Modern historians do not take seriously the charges of Akbar abjuring Islam. Thus, I.H.Quereshi, a leading historian of Pakistan, says: He ( akbar) did not ask his followers to abjure islam as has been wrongly asserted by some historians, but he asked them to abjure the orthodox form of it''.

The charge that akbar had renounced Islam is buttressed by the Jesuits father at Akbar's court, and by Badauni, by arguing that akbar had set up a new religion, called Din-i-ilahi, which was compounded of many existing religions, Hinduism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism etc. and that Akbar wanted to set himself up as its head. According to Monserrate, ''Akbar has a strong desire to be looked upon, and esteemed as a god, or some great ''prophet'', and that he would have people believe that he performs miracle, healing the sick with the water with which he washes his feet.''

Modern research does not support the contention that Akbar wanted to establish a new religion. It had been pointed out that din-i-ilahi had no priesthood, no rituals or beliefs, no books. In fact, we do not even know when it was established.

The four degrees of faith in his majesty which were often confused with din-i-ilahi are 1st mentioned by Badauni in 1580. These degrees consisted in readiness to sacrifice to the emperor property, life, honour and religion. whoever sacrificed these things possessed the 4 degrees, and whoever sacrificed 1 of these four possessed one degree. According to a modern historian, S.A.A Rizvi, ''the four degrees of devotion provided the principle ideological force which sought to unify the new Mughal elite around the Mughal throne. ''All the courtiers and thousands of loyal officials seem to have considered ''the chain of discipleship'' as the ''noose of every felicity. ''A modern scholar, J.F Richards says: "Discipleship was an extremely effective means to assimilate a heterogeneous body of nobles and bind them to the throne''. Princes and high dignitaries considered themselves to be murids (disciple) of their emperor even under the successors of Akbar and claimed to have obtained guidance from the emperor's angelic heart.

Historians like Athar Ali raises doubt regarding allegations that Akbar was had adopted a repressive attitude towards the practitioners of orthodox Islam. He doubts the veracity of such statements by pointing out that an exceptionally large mosque was built by Man singh at raj mahal in 1592. Regarding this mosque he also says that the popular tradition recorded in the archaeological survey's report that the structure was originally intended for a temple , but was afterwards turned the jama masjid for fear of emperor.

Hence, it can be can be concluded that though Akbar's religious policies were tolerant towards Hindus yet Akbar's attitude to set himself as a jagat guru, the spiritual leader of the people was a political interpretation. His acts such as providing jharokha darshan to his people every day before sunrise and that of proclaiming allah hu akbar were seen as a way of popularising himself and a way of providing legitimacy from his people. But he in no way wanted to be next to god . Therefore he calls himself many a times as zil-li-ilahi or the shadow of god.

Though perhaps the motive behind Akbar's religious policy be due to political reasons, it could be seen that his policies has many significance as it intended and strengthened Akbar's empire, the cultural unity between the Hindus and Muslim was strengthened and also his interest in Hindu society led to awakening regarding the evil practices of sati and we also see there was encouragement for widow re-marriage in society.

REFERENCE:

• ESSAYS ON MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY-SATISH CHANDRA
• AKBAR'S PERSONALITY TRAITS AND WORLD OUTLOOK-IQTIDAR ALAM KHAN
• MEDIEVAL INDIA (FROM SULTANATE TO MUGHALS)-II (1526 1748)-SATISH CHANDRA
• MUGHAL INDIA: STUDIES IN POLITY, IDEAS, SOCIETY AND CULTURE-ATHAR ALI 
• MUGHAL EMPIRE IN INDIA PART I (1526-1781)-R.S SHARMA